鸦片与吗啡的区别
陕西力德律师事务所 张长海 律师
鸦片、吗啡均是我国现行刑法打击的毒品犯罪中主要的毒品种类,我国《刑法》第三百五十七条明确规定:“本法所称的毒品,是指鸦片、海洛因、甲基苯丙胺(冰毒)、吗啡、大麻、可卡因以及国家规定管制的其他能够使人形成瘾癖的麻醉药品和精神药品。”
可是随着国家对毒品犯罪打击力度的不断加强,国内出版界对鸦片和吗啡的种植、提取、合成、制造的化学工艺方法和相关科技知识的传播和管制也越来越严格。因此,目前国内对鸦片种植、提取、合成、制造的一些基本科学知识的介绍是越来越少。这种有关鸦片、吗啡基本科学知识缺失的现象,已经导致目前国内司法机关及其工作人员在对鸦片、吗啡的具体认定上,在对鸦片、吗啡的定量、定性分析和区别上出现一定的偏差,这种偏差直接影响了对鸦片、吗啡犯罪案件定性的准确性。在此,根据有关资料,我将根据有关鸦片、吗啡的一些基本知识和如何区别鸦片与吗啡的界限,谈一下自己的一些观点。
一、鸦片的来源和分类。
鸦片俗称大烟、烟土、阿片或阿芙蓉。鸦片,是罂粟的初级产品。鸦片原产于南欧及小亚细亚,后传到印度、阿拉伯和东南亚等地。在七、八 世纪时, 阿拉伯商人将鸦片及其罂粟的种植技术带入中国。鸦片为医学上的麻醉性镇痛药,是从草本植物??罂粟中提炼出来的。罂粟,是一种一年生的栽培植物,一般种植在海拔高300至1700米的地方,其植株约高1.5米,每年二月播种,四、五月分开花,花呈白、红、紫等颜色,每朵花有四个花辩,其叶子大而光滑,边缘有缺刻,呈带有银色光泽的绿色,当其果实成熟时,花辩自然脱落。罂粟本身不是毒品,但它是鸦片制品的原料,从罂粟中可得到象鸦片、吗啡、海洛因、可待因等等毒品。
生鸦片的获取,是通过多孔的小刀将罂粟的蒴果轻轻划破,搜集其白色乳汁,暴露于空气中,由于氧化作用,乳汁干燥凝结后变成褐色,有些品种则呈黑色;可制成圆块状、饼状或砖状,这就是生鸦片。
鸦片有生、熟之分。生鸦片一般表面干燥而脆,里面则保持柔软和有粘性,具有强列的、令人作呕的气味,有点象氨味陈旧的尿味,味很苦。为保持湿润,通常用玻璃纸或塑料纸包装。
生鸦片需进一步加工处理后,方可供吸毒者使用,可吸鸦片即熟鸦片。熟鸦片就是生鸦片经过烧煮和发酵后,制成条状、板片状或块状;其表面光滑柔软,有油腻感,呈棕色或金黄色,通常包装在薄布或塑料纸中。
二、鸦片的品种和化学成分。
根据资料显示,罂粟在植物学上的分类有28属,250多种;主要生长在北半球几乎整个温带和亚热带地区。由于罂粟的属种较多,因此,由不同属种的罂粟提取的鸦片内的化学成分均有所不同。加上不同属种的罂粟种植的产地、气候、种植管理条件的不同,其鸦片内的化学成分也均有所不同。比如,在解放前国内的鸦片中,产自云南的鸦片“云土”质量最好,为国内瘾君子推崇的上品,其有毒的化学天然成分含量(包括吗啡的含量)必然相对于“川土”、“甘土”、“秦土”等鸦片要高,可以达到16%以上。在鸦片的品种中,有毒的化学天然成分含量最高的,是产自日本的鸦片,其吗啡的含量最高竟能达到24%。
目前国内查获的鸦片中除了百分之十五至三十的矿物质、树脂和水份外,一般还含有百分之十至二十的特殊生物碱。这些生物碱可分为三类:一类是吗啡类生物碱,其中又包括三种成份,1.吗啡,在鸦片中含有百分之十至十四;2.可待因,这是吗啡的甲醚,在鸦片中含百分之一至三;3.蒂巴因,在鸦片中约含百分之零点二。一类是罂粟碱类生物碱,在鸦片中的含量为百分之零点五至一。一类是盐酸那可汀类生物碱,在鸦片中的含量为百分之三至八。
从以上对鸦片科学知识的介绍可以看出,鸦片由于其提取物罂粟的属种较多,产地、气候、种植管理条件的不同,其鸦片内的化学成分必然也有所不同。加之目前国内涉及鸦片犯罪活动的国际化,因此,鸦片内的化学成分比例必然呈现多样性的变化。
三、吗啡的概念和化学成分。
吗啡的概念。吗啡是鸦片中的主要生物碱,作为化学原料或吸毒者吸食的吗啡,是采用化学分离、合成、提取的方法从鸦片中予以提取出的。作为鸦片的主要有效成份,吗啡在国内查获的鸦片中一般含量为7%至14%,当然也有含量达到的16%以上的。由于纯度关系,吗啡的颜色可呈白色、浅黄色或棕色,可将其干燥成结晶粉末状,也可做成块状。目前在国内查获的吗啡多以盐酸类、硫酸盐、醋酸盐等盐类吗啡为主要存在状态。吗啡味道微酸。因其极易吸水,故作为毒品用的吗啡一般需用聚乙烯或赛璐玢包装,以保持其干燥。
在医学上,吗啡为麻醉性镇痛药,药用其盐酸盐、硫酸盐、醋酸盐和酒石酸盐。具有镇痛及催眠作用,其镇痛作用是自然存在的化合物中无可区敌的,因而一直被视为解除剧痛最有效的传统的止痛药。
吗啡是一种医药化工原料,也是海洛因制造的最基本的原料和基本成分。在吗啡中加入冰醋酸等物质,化合反应后再经过提炼合成的产品就是一种半合成化的衍生物二乙酰吗啡,即海洛因。其中含二乙酰吗啡的比例为25%—45%的叫三号海洛因,含二乙酰吗啡的比例在80%—98%的叫四号海洛因。近来还出现了含量在99%以上的五号海洛因。
另外,在海洛因制造的工艺中,还有一种是在吗啡中加入盐酸,化合反应后可形成二乙酰吗啡和单乙酰吗啡。其中二乙酰吗啡进入人体后也会被水解为单乙酰吗啡,后再变成吗啡。因此,单乙酰吗啡也是海洛因的一种基本成份。在这种盐酸与吗啡化合反应的制成品中,二乙酰吗啡和单乙酰吗啡的含量一般为25%-45%。与醋酸法制成的单独含二乙酰吗啡的产品一样,这种工艺形成的产品也是海洛因。其中含二乙酰吗啡的比例为25%—45%的也叫三号海洛因,含二乙酰吗啡的比例在80%—98%的也叫四号海洛因。
以上两种工艺及其他工艺制成的二乙酰吗啡和单乙酰吗啡产品,由于制成工艺条件的不同,颜色从浅灰色到深灰色不等。有时由于参入的其它原料的不同,也会形成其他颜色,如棕色的等。
四、鸦片与吗啡的区别和认定。
从以上对鸦片与吗啡的基本科学知识的介绍可以知道,鸦片与吗啡两者在概念上是完全不同的两个不同概念,在外观形状、内在化学成分等多方面均是两种不同的毒品物质,是制造关系上属于罂粟毒品提取过程中的两个紧密相连的两个制造阶段的不同产品。因此,两者之间是有着严格区别的。
吗啡由于是否经过提炼,又分为作为鸦片成份的原始状态吗啡和采用化学提取的方法从鸦片中予以提练出的纯化学成份吗啡。这种是否经过化学分解、合成、提取的过程是作为鸦片成份的原始状态吗啡和纯化学成份吗啡的唯一区别。
但是由于吗啡是从鸦片中提取的,这种制造工艺上的关联性,加上犯罪分子在提取工艺过程中的偷工减料、因故突然中断提炼等因素的存在,使得两者在某些查获毒品的外观形状等诸多方面上不易区分,使这两个制造阶段的不同的产品在具体概念的判断上极易混淆.
面对这种情况,国内有部分司法机关依据国内部分资料数据,将鸦片中含有百分之十四原始吗啡的含量,作为认定鸦片与吗啡界限的标准。认为只要鸦片中原始吗啡的含量超过百分之十四,就一律要认定为吗啡。笔者认为这种认定意见是错误的。从前面的有关鸦片的知识介绍可知,鸦片的原生物罂粟的品种众多,各品种所产鸦片内的吗啡含量高低不一,最低的吗啡含量在10%,最高的吗啡含量在24%。在这样的客观事实面前,将百分之十四原始吗啡的含量作为认定鸦片与吗啡的界限标准显然是错误的。
首先,是对原始状态吗啡成份与纯化学成份吗啡在科学概念上的混淆。鸦片中含有原始状态吗啡的含量,是一种客观存在,在未经提炼的情况下,它只是作为鸦片的一个组成部分存在,它只能是鸦片。采用化学分离的方法从鸦片中予以提练出来的纯化学成份吗啡,才是在化学成份概念上独立存在的吗啡,才是法律概念上的吗啡。
其次、以偏代全,以中国内地产的鸦片化学成份代替毒品研究的全球化成果。因为这是以国内部分关于国产鸦片化学成分的资料或论文数据为准的,未能全面综合的参考世界范围内的关于鸦片化学成分的资料或论文数据。连罂粟在植物学上的分类、属种、成份等基本资料都未参考。
因此,在国内立法机关尚未制定出鸦片与吗啡的法律界限认定标准之前,各地司法机关不宜以国内部分关于鸦片化学成分的资料或论文数据为准来认定鸦片与吗啡的界限标准界限。
五、复杂情况下鸦片与吗啡的区别和法律认定。
在国内打击毒品的司法实践中,我们的办案人员经常遇到贩卖、运输、走私毒品人员携带的毒品成份极其复杂的情况。在一份毒品中同时含有原始状态吗啡成份和纯化学成份吗啡,甚至还含有海洛因成份的情况。在此情况下我们应如何进行认定该毒品呢?
笔者认为,对此情况应根据该毒品的主要毒品成份的状况,以及毒品的外观形状,并结合《刑法》规定的有关犯罪的主、客观方面证据必须统一的规定来进行综合的认定。具体可能有以下三种情况:
1、如果该毒品在主要毒品成份,以及毒品的外观形状上均为鸦片的成份和外观,同时,毒贩的供认是在贩卖、运输、走私鸦片。那么,即就是该毒品中含有少量纯化学成份的吗啡等其它成份,我们也应该认定该毒品为鸦片。
2、如果,该毒品在主要毒品成份含有吗啡或海洛因的成份较大,但在毒品的外观形状上较为类似鸦片的外观,同时,毒贩的供述又承认是在贩卖、运输、走私鸦片,那么我们也应该认定该毒品为鸦片。因为如果我们将此类毒品认定为吗啡或海洛因,就会形成在刑事诉讼证据上的主、客证据上的不统一,在诉讼程序上形成罪名认定错误的状况。
3、如果,该毒品在主要毒品成份为含有吗啡或海洛因的成份,在毒品的外观形状上也较为类似吗啡或海洛因的外观。但同时,毒贩的供述又只承认是在贩卖、运输、走私鸦片,不承认是在贩卖、运输、走私吗啡或海洛因(笔者就曾经遇到过此种案件)。那么我们就应该认真核实该毒品犯罪嫌疑人是否为第一次贩毒,其是否具有基本的毒品知识等基本情况。如果该毒品犯罪嫌疑人为第一次贩毒,其也不具有基本的毒品知识。那么,我们就只能认定为该毒品犯罪嫌疑人对自己贩卖、运输、走私毒品的种类发生认识错误。对此情况,我们只能按照刑法的犯罪四个构成要件的规定,根据刑事诉讼证据上的主、客证据必须统一的规定,研究如何进行罪名的认定。否则,就会形成在诉讼证据上的主、客证据上的不统一,在诉讼程序上形成罪名认定错误的状况。
综上所述,笔者认为在国家立法机关未能制定鸦片与吗啡的科学、法律认定区分界限标准以前,国内司法机关不宜以国内部分关于鸦片化学成分的资料或论文数据为准来认定鸦片与吗啡的界限标准。国内司法机关目前在认定鸦片与吗啡时,首先要考虑原始成份吗啡与纯化学成份吗啡在科学概念上的区别,要确定吗啡成份是以什么状态存在的;同时,既要考虑到多数国内犯罪分子所种植或贩运的一般鸦片所含吗啡含量的化学成分数据,也要考虑到少数国内犯罪分子所种植或贩运的少数鸦片所含吗啡含量较高的化学成分数据,同时还要考虑到国外产各种鸦片所含吗啡含量的化学成分数据,因为贩卖鸦片早已是“国际贸易”了。既要考虑到国内一般品种罂粟产鸦片所含的化学成分数据,也要考虑到国外特殊品种罂粟产鸦片所含的化学成分数据。同时,还要结合刑法的犯罪四个构成要件的规定,根据刑事诉讼证据上的主、客证据必须统一的规定,综合进行认定。否则,我们将无法面对复杂的毒品犯罪的现实情况,会在认定鸦片与吗啡区别的界限上,犯最基本的科学、法律概念混淆的错误,并影响对毒品犯罪案件案犯的公平、准确的定罪、量刑,影响执法的公正性。
张长海律师供职于陕西力德事务所,办公地址:陕西省西安市尚德路90号601-603室
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中外合资经营企业合营各方出资的若干规定(附英文)
对外贸易经济合作部 国家工商局
中外合资经营企业合营各方出资的若干规定(附英文)
1988年1月1日,外经贸部、国家工商局
第一条 为保护中外合资经营企业(以下简称合营企业)合营各方的合法权益,维护社会经济秩序,根据《中华人民共和国中外合资经营企业法》及其他有关法规,制定本规定。
第二条 合营各方按照合营合同的规定向合营企业认缴的出资,必须是合营者自己所有的现金,自己所有并且未设立任何担保物权的实物、工业产权、专有技术等。
凡是以实物、工业产权、专有技术作价出资的,出资者应当出具拥有所有权和处置权的有效证明。
第三条 合营企业任何一方不得用以合营企业名义取得的贷款、租赁的设备或者其他财产以及合营者以外的他人财产作为自己的出资,也不得以合营企业的财产和权益或者合营他方的财产和权益为其出资担保。
第四条 合营各方应当在合营合同中订明出资期限,并且应当按照合营合同规定的期限缴清各自的出资。合营企业依照有关规定发给的出资证明书应当报送原审批机关和工商行政管理机关备案。
合营合同中规定一次缴清出资的,合营各方应当从营业执照签发之日起六个月内缴清。
合营合同中规定分期缴付出资的,合营各方第一期出资,不得低于各自认缴出资额的15%,并且应当在营业执照签发之日起三个月内缴清。
第五条 合营各方未能在第四条规定的期限内缴付出资的,视同合营企业自动解散,合营企业批准证书自动失效。合营企业应当向工商行政管理机关办理注销登记手续,缴销营业执照;不办理注销登记手续和缴销营业执照的,由工商行政管理机关吊销其营业执照,并予以公告。
第六条 合营各方缴付第一期出资后,超过合营合同规定的其他任何一期出资期限三个月,仍未出资或者出资不足时,工商行政管理机关应当会同原审批机关发出通知,要求合营各方在一个月内缴请出资。
未按照前款规定的通知期限缴清出资的,原审批机关有权撤销对该合营企业的批准证书。批准证书撤销后,合营企业应当向工商行政管理机关办理注销登记手续,缴销营业执照、并清理债权债务;不办理注销登记手续和缴销营业执照的,工商行政管理机关有权吊销其营业执照,并予以公告。
第七条 合营一方未按照合营合同的规定如期缴付或者缴清其出资的,即■或违约。守约方应当催告违约方在一个月内缴付或者缴清出资,逾期仍未缴付或者缴清的,视同违约方放弃在合营合同中的一切权利,自动退出合营企业。守约方应当在逾期后一个月内,向原审批机关申请批准解散合营企业或者申请批准另找合营者承担违约方在合营合同中的权利和义务。守约方可以依法要求违约方赔偿因未缴付或者缴清出资造成的经济损失。
前款违约方已经按照合营合同规定缴付部分出资的,由合营企业对该出资进行清理。
守约方未按照第一款规定向原审批机关申请批准解散合营企业或者申请批准另找合营者的,审批机关有权撤销对该合营企业的批准证书。批准证书撤销后,合营企业应当向工商行政管理机关办理注销登记手续,缴销营业执照;不办理注销登记手续和缴销营业执照的,工商行政管理机关有权吊销其营业执照,并予以公告。
第八条 本规定施行之日前已领取营业执照的合营企业,如合营各方或者任何一方未按照合营合同规定的出资期限缴付其出资的,应当在本规定施行之日起两个月内缴清按照合同规定应当缴付的出资。
在前款规定的期限内仍未缴清其出资的,可按照本规定第五条至第七条的规定办理。
第九条 在本规定施行之日前已领取营业执照的合营企业,如果合营各方未在合营合同中订明各自出资期限,并且未缴清出资的,合营各方应当在本规定施行之日起两个月内,按照本规定签订关于合营各方缴付出资期限的合营合同补充协议,报原审批机关审批,获准后,向工商行政管理机关备案。
前款合营各方在两个月内未签订缴付出资期限补充协议,又未缴清出资,致使合营企业自营业执照签发之日起无法筹建或者无法开业满六个月的,原审批机关有权撤销对该合营企业的批准证书。批准证书撤销后,合营企业应当向工商行政管理机关办理注销登记手续,缴销营业执照;不办理注销登记手续和缴销营业执照的,工商行政管理机关有权吊销其营业执照,并予以公告。
第十条 中外合作经营企业合作各方的出资参照本规定执行。
第十一条 本规定自一九八八年三月一日起施行。
Provisions for the Contribution of Capital by Parties to JointVentures Using Chinese and Foreign Investment
(Approved by State Council on December 30, 1987 Promulgated byMinistry of Foreign Economic Relations and Trade and State Administrationof Industry and Commerce)
Whole Doc.
Article 1
In accordance with The Law of the People's Republic of China on Joint
Ventures Using Chinese and Foreign Investment and other relevant laws and
regulations, these Provisions are hereby formulated in order to protect
the legitimate rights and interests of parties to joint ventures using
Chinese and foreign investment (hereinafter referred to as joint venture)
and safeguard social economic order
Article 2
Capital put up for the joint venture shall, according to the
provisions of the joint venture contracts, be cash owned by the joint
venture partners, or contributions made in kind which have not been used
as security for guarantee purposes, industrial property and patent
technology.
In case of making contribution in kind or using industrial property
and patented technology as capital, the joint venture partners shall
provide proofs showing their ownership and right of disposition.
Article 3
No joint venture partner shall use loans, leasehold equipment and
other property obtained in the name of the joint venture as its investment
to the joint venture. No joint venture partner is allowed to use property
and equity of the joint venture or property and equity belonged to another
joint venture partner as guarantee for the capital it put up for the joint
venture.
Article 4
Joint venture partners shall agree in the joint venture contract a
time schedule that each partner should follow in putting up their capital
for the joint venture. In accordance with the relevant regulations, the
joint venture shall issue the contribution certificates to the joint
venture partners and the certificates shall be submitted to the original
examination and approval authority and the administration of industry and
commerce for the record.
In case the joint venture contract stipulates that contribution of
capital shall be made in one single installment, all partners to the joint
venture shall do so within six months upon the issuance of the joint
venture's business license.
In case the joint venture contract stipulates that contribution of
capital shall be made in several separate installments, the first
installment from each joint venture partner shall not be less than 15% of
their respective agreed amounts of contribution. All joint venture
partners shall put up their required amounts of capital for the first
installment within three months upon issuance of the joint venture's
business license.
Article 5
If all partners to a joint venture have failed to put up their
required amounts of capital according to the time schedule stipulated in
Article 4, the joint venture shall be considered as dissolved voluntarily.
The joint venture's approval certificate shall automatically become
invalid. The joint venture should go through the formalities for
nullifying the registration and hand in its business license to the
administration of industry and commerce for cancellation. For those who
fail to do so, the administration of industry and commerce shall have the
right to revoke their business licenses and make a public announcement to
that effect.
Article 6
After the first installment, in case all joint venture partners to a
joint venture have failed, either in part or in full, to put up their
required amounts of capital in a period as long as three months after the
time schedule stipulated in the joint venture contract, the administration
of industry and commerce shall, together with the original examination and
approval authority, issue a notice requiring all the joint venture
partners to put up their capital contributions within one month.
If the parties concerned still fail to put up the required amount of
capital after the time period stipulated in the notice mentioned in the
above paragraph, the original examination and approval authority shall
have the right to revoke the joint venture's approval certificate. After
the revocation, the joint venture shall go through the formalities for
nullifying the registration and hand in its business license to the
administration of industry and commerce for cancellation. The joint
venture shall also settle its credits and debts. The administration of
industry and commerce shall have the right to revoke the business license
of a joint venture and make public announcement to that effect if the
joint venture has failed to go through the formalities for nullifying the
registration and hand in its business license for cancellation as
required.
Article 7
A joint venture partner will be considered "breaching the contract"
if it has failed to put up or contribute fully its required capitals
according to the agreed time schedule in the joint venture contract. The
other joint venture partner(s) which has fulfilled the contribution
obligation shall then inform and urge the breaching party to fulfill its
obligation within an one-month period. If the breaching party still fails
to fulfill the capital contribution obligations, the breaching party will
be considered "voluntarily withdrawing" from the joint venture and
"voluntarily surrendering" all its rights to the joint venture. The
abiding party shall then apply to the original examination and approval
authority to either dissolve the joint venture or to look for another
joint venture partner to undertake the obligations and rights of the
breaching party as provided in the original joint venture contract. The
abiding party shall have the right to make claim for compensation as a
result of the breaching party's failure to fulfill its capital
contribution obligations.
The partial contribution made by the breaching party according to the
joint venture contract shall be settled or liquidated by the joint
venture.
In case the abiding party has failed to apply according to the first
paragraph of Article 7 to the original examination and approval authority
for dissolving the joint venture or to look for a new joint venture
partner, the original examination and approval authority shall have the
right to revoke the approval certificate of the joint venture. After the
revocation, the joint venture shall go through the formalities for
nullifying the registration and hand in its business license to the
administration of industry and commerce for cancellation. For those who
fail to do so, the administration of industry and commerce shall have the
right to revoke their business licenses and make a public announcement to
that effect.
Article 8
Joint venture partners (all or an individual party) of any joint
venture which has obtained its business license prior to the
implementation of the present set of Provisions are required to fulfill
their capital contribution obligations within a two-month period starting
from the date of implementation of the present set of Provisions if they
have not done so as required in the time schedule agreed in the joint
venture contract.
If a joint venture partner has not fulfilled its capital contribution
obligations as required in the above paragraph, provisions contained in
Article 5, Article 6 and Article 7 of the present set of Provisions shall
apply.
Article 9
Joint venture partners of any joint venture which has obtained its
business license prior to the implementation of the present set of
Provisions shall sign an additional agreement specifying the time limit
for capital contribution according to requirements of the present set of
Provisions within a two-month period starting from the date of
implementation of the present set of Provisions if the original joint
venture contract does not contain an item to that effect and they have not
put up the required amounts of capital accordingly. The additional
agreement shall be submitted to the original examination and approval
authority for approval. If approval is granted, the additional agreement
shall be submitted to the administration of industry and commerce for the
record.
The original examination and approval authority shall have the right
to revoke a joint venture approval certificate in case the joint venture
partners have failed to sign an additional agreement and put up the
required amounts of contribution within the two-month period as mentioned
in the above paragraph and their failure has caused a delay in
construction or operation of the joint venture for as long as six months
starting from the date of issuance of its business license. After the
revocation, the joint venture shall go through the formalities for
nullifying the registration and hand in its business license to the
administration of industry and commerce for cancellation. For those who
fail to do so, the administration of industry and commerce shall have the
right to revoke their business licenses and make a public announcement to
that effect.
Article 10
Matters concerning the contribution of capital by parties to
Chinese-foreign cooperative joint ventures shall be handled with reference
to the present set of Provisions.
Article 11
The present set of Provisions shall enter into force on March 1,
1988.